The Middle East is the region where Asia, Africa, and Europe meet. Although the area’s precise boundaries are difficult to define, characteristics of a transition zone combine with special local elements to produce a distinctive regional identity. Part of the Middle East’s identity is the product of the expansion and contraction of its sociocultural borders throughout its history. New groups, goods, and ideas entered the area because of this continuing interaction at this tricontinental hub of the Afro-Eurasian landmass. Tensions between elements of unity and diversity are thus created, and their resolution has created and maintained a unified mosaic of peoples and cultures in Middle Eastern society.
The term Middle East was first used in 1902 by the U.S. naval writer Alfred Mahan in a discussion of British imperial strategy. The term referred then to the western and northern approaches to India. Current usage began during World War II, when the Allies used the term Middle East to refer to the region stretching from South Asia to North Africa. Gradually Middle East replaced older terms such as Near East or the Levant in popular usage.
The modern countries that make up the Middle East, in the most common current usage, can be divided into four groups: Northeast Africa (Egypt and Libya); the Fertile Crescent countries (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Israel); the nations of the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman); and the Northern Tier (Turkey and Iran). This area of about 9,000,000 sq km (3,475,000 sq mi) has a population of nearly 246,000,000 persons (1990 est.). Other areas are sometimes also considered part of the Middle East, including North Africa, Sudan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Greece, Cyprus, and the new Muslim states of former Soviet Central Asia (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan).
Geographic factors help define the Middle East, but historical experience has been crucial in creating a regional identity. Early civilizations emerged in the valleys of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates rivers, and civilization then spread to the surrounding areas. By the 2d millennium BC the interaction between these areas created a regional context that transcended local differences. This unity later took political form in great empires. In the 6th century BC the area from western Egypt to northern India was united under the rule of the Persian Empire. Subsequent empires ruled large portions of the region at various times and had constant contact. Following the rise of Islam during the 7th century AD the entire Middle East was again unified by the creation of the Arab-Muslim empires of the Umayyads and Abbasids. The modern Middle East roughly coincides with the areas included in these empires. As Islamic empires expanded and contracted, the sociocultural borders of the region changed. The later expansion of Islam integrated new peoples into the Middle Eastern sphere and created a larger Islamic world, of which the Middle East is just one part. During the post-World War II era the Middle East has become increasingly important politically and economically. The presence of vast petroleum reserves, the conflicts between Israel and its Arab neighbors, Iraqi expansionism, and the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in the region have worldwide strategic importance.
LAND
Mountains, dry plateaus, and deserts dominate the landscape of the Middle East. A mountainous belt stretches across the Northern Tier. In Turkey it consists of two ranges, the Pontic (or North Anatolian) Mountains along the Black Sea and the Taurus along the Mediterranean. These mountains surround the Anatolian Plateau of central Turkey and combine in rugged eastern Turkey, where Mount Ararat (5,165 m/16,946 ft) is located. The mountain belt divides again in Iran, surrounding the dry Iranian plateau. On the north are the Elburz Mountains containing Mount Demavend (5,610 m/18,406 ft), the highest peak in the Middle East, while the Zagros Mountains form the southern range.
The area south of the mountainous Northern Tier consists of plains and divided plateaus. A line of lower mountains runs north and south along the Mediterranean coast of Syria, Lebanon, and Israel, with southern extensions on both sides of the Red Sea. West of this the land rises gradually from the sea to interior plateaus containing the sand seas of the Libyan and
Western Egyptian deserts (see Libyan Desert). East of these mountains is a lowland area, largely of arid plateau and desert, extending from the Taurus to the coast of Oman.
The geological history of the Middle East presents an interesting parallel to its cultural history because some of the world’s major continental plates meet there. North Africa and Arabia are remnants of a great continental landmass called Gondwanaland, which began to break up and move northward during the Mesozoic Era (225 million to 65 million years ago). These plates, the plate to the north of which Eurasia was a part, contacted Laurasia during the Tertiary Period (65 million to 25 million years ago). The interaction produced the characteristic geographic features of the region. Frequent earthquakes occur along the major plate boundaries, especially in Turkey and Iran.
Drainage
Because of limited rainfall, the river systems and drainage patterns are important as a water source in the region. There are two great permanent river systems, the Nile River and the Tigris and Euphrates system, while a number of smaller rivers have year-round flow, including the Jordan River and the Litani (in Lebanon). In many areas rivers dry up completely during dry seasons or contain water only after rare rainstorms. These areas include central Iran, most of the central plain, and all of northeast Africa outside of the Nile Valley. Frequently the drainage systems are closed or there is no surface drainage. One such system is the Jordan River and Dead Sea basin with elevations as low as 397 m (1,302 ft) below sea level.
Climate
The Middle East, a transition zone between equatorial and middle latitude climates, is generally characterized by aridity. The region contains large desert and semidesert areas with small islands of well-watered lands.
Much of the Middle East has a Mediterranean climate of hot, dry summers, with limited rainfall coming in the cooler winter season. Most of the area south of the northern mountains receives less than 250 mm (10 in) of rainfall annually. Areas receiving higher precipitation are the mountain areas in Yemen and Oman, which are influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons, and the coastal areas of Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. In the Northern Tier arid areas are located on the Iranian Plateau, while areas of higher rainfall (more than 1,500 mm/60 in annually) are found along the coasts of the Caspian and Black seas. Summer temperatures are high throughout the region, with mean daily temperatures in July of more than 30 degrees C (86 degrees F) in the deserts and along the Persian Gulf and Red Sea coasts. In winter only the Anatolian Plateau and northern mountain areas have mean daily temperatures of less than 0 degrees C (32 degrees F), although there is regular snow in the mountains of Lebanon and Yemen.
Soils
Soil conditions are influenced by the climate. The most common soils are red desert soils. These cover virtually all of Libya, Egypt, and the central plain from the Taurus to the Indian Ocean. Grey desert soils (with less clay content than red desert soils) cover much of northern and central Iran. Soils valuable for agriculture are of more limited distribution. The most important are the alluvial soils of the Nile and Tigris- Euphrates valleys. Prairie, chestnut, and brown soils support agriculture in parts of Iraq and Syria, while terra rossa soils provide rich farming areas along the Mediterranean coasts of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Libya.
Vegetation and Animal Life
Natural vegetation is influenced by the climate and the long history of human habitation. Prehistoric forests in the region have been greatly reduced by humans. Evergreens, herbs, and shrubs are found in the coastal regions. The Northern Tier has lush forests on the southern coasts of the Black and Caspian seas and steppe and desert vegetation in the plateaus. The most widespread vegetation zones are the desert and semiarid steppe areas. In these areas plants have adapted to dry conditions and have developed large root systems, spines and scales rather than leaves, and rapidly germinating seeds.
Wildlife is under great pressure from humans. Some animals that were once common, such as the lion, have disappeared, while others have been reduced in numbers. These include ibex, wild sheep, lynx, and desert animals such as the jerboa, gerbil, jackal, hyena, and a variety of reptiles. Still others, some forms of the mongoose, reptiles, and rodents, have adapted themselves to city and village environments. The Bactrian (two- humped) camel and the dromedary (one-humped camel) are large mammals that have been domesticated, as have sheep and goats. In the Nile Valley crocodiles and other distinctive riverain animals are found. The rest of the region is a dry zone of transition to the Ethiopian (Sub-Saharan) zoogeographical region and contains animals of the Ethiopian region, such as baboons and ostriches.
Resources
The most important natural resources in the Middle East are its vast petroleum reserves, concentrated in the countries along the Persian Gulf. Gold, silver, copper, and iron have been mined since ancient times. Today the most important minerals are iron (Iran, Libya, Syria, and Turkey); chrome (Turkey); copper (in small deposits throughout the region); phosphate (Egypt, Jordan, Israel, and Syria); sulfur (Iran, Iraq, and Turkey); and rock salt (Yemen). The soils and water that support agriculture are a resource vital to the domestic economies of the Middle Eastern nations.
PEOPLE
Middle Eastern society is a complex mosaic of peoples and cultures. Throughout history there has been a flow of people into the region from surrounding areas, introducing groups which have been integrated into the larger society while maintaining their own distinctive identity. In addition, localized conditions of deserts and mountains have created sheltered environments in which small communities can maintain a separate communal existence.
The three major groupings are Semites, Turks, and Indo- Europeans (Aryans). The major modern Semitic groups are the Arabs and the Jews, while the Persians are the largest Indo- European group. Turkic peoples spread across the Northern Tier and now constitute the majority in modern Turkey. In Egypt, ancient Nilotic elements are still present (see Nilotes), and the Nubians have maintained a special identity there as well. Other distinctive groups are Kurds (Iran, Iraq, and Turkey); the great Iranian tribes, Bakhtiaris, Baluchis, Lurs, and Qashqais; and many smaller groups.
Language and Religion
Language and religion are key elements in both Middle Eastern diversity and identity. The major languages of the region are Arabic, Persian (Farsi; see Indo-Iranian languages), and Turkish (see Ural-Altaic languages). Each of these is further differentiated into regional dialects. Among Semitic languages, other than Arabic, are Hebrew and ancient languages spoken in small communities scattered throughout the region, such as Aramaic in some villages in the Fertile Crescent (see Afroasiatic languages). Nubians in Egypt have maintained their own languages, as have special groups in the Northern Tier and Fertile Crescent, including the Armenians (see Armenia, Republic of), Kurds, Azerbaijanis, and smaller groups.
The major monotheistic traditions of Middle Eastern origin– Christianity, Islam, and Judaism–are represented by a variety of communities. Islam is now the dominant religion, and its Sunni tradition (see Sunnites) is followed by the great majority of inhabitants throughout the Middle East. The Shia tradition of Islam (see Shiites) has a number of different communities. Twelver, or Imami, Shiism is the official religion of Iran and has large communities in Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon. Other special Muslim groups are the Alawis of Syria, the Druzes of the western Fertile Crescent, Zaydi Shia in Yemen, and Ibadi Kharijites in Oman. Similar diversity is found within Christianity. The largest groups are the Copts (see Coptic church) in Egypt, the Maronites in Lebanon, and the Greek Orthodox found in various countries. A remarkable number of other church communities have survived, including Armenians, Chaldeans, Nestorians, and Syriac or Jacobite groups (see Armenian church; Eastern Rite churches; Jacobite church; Nestorian church). Even the more concentrated Jewish tradition, the official religion of Israel, is represented by smaller groups (such as the Karaites and Samarians). Other religions are also represented in the Middle East: the Yazidis in northern Iraq and the zoroastrians (see Zoroastrianism), of Iran continue older traditions while Baha’ i, founded during the 19th century in Iran, is a tradition with a following in many countries.
Demography
The nations of the Middle East are experiencing rapid population growth. This development of the modern era is occurring after a long period of relative stability or even decline in population figures. Current birthrates of about 40 per 1,000 inhabitants are not expected to decline in the near future. Death rates, however, have declined significantly, although there is a wide range, from 2 per 1,000 inhabitants in Kuwait to about 16 per 1,000 in Yemen. These and other factors contribute to an annual rate of population increase of 1.6 percent to 4.3 percent. This growth pattern creates a young population, with at least 45 percent of the total Middle Eastern population younger than 15 years of age.
Throughout the Middle East the population is unevenly distributed, with large, virtually uninhabited desert areas, transitional zones where nomads live, and crowded agricultural areas. The contrast is most vivid in Egypt where more than 95 percent of the population live in the Nile Valley, which is only about 5 percent of the total land area. The composition of the population is changing; while rural villagers still constitute the majority of the population, the process of urbanization is rapid. The rate of urban growth for the region is believed to be about 5 percent to 6 percent annually. In addition, the nomadic populations, who traditionally inhabit the desert and semidesert areas, are decreasing as they settle in villages or cities.
ECONOMY
Agriculture
A majority of the population is engaged in agriculture although only about 14 percent of the surface is arable and about 6 percent of the land is cultivated. The two forms of principal agriculture are dry farming (dependent on seasonal rainfall) in large areas of the Northern Tier and eastern Mediterranean coasts and irrigated farming in the river valleys and desert oases. In marginal areas nomadic groups herd sheep, goats, and camels. In the river valleys the construction of dams has brought a change to perennial irrigation in some areas. One special form of irrigation found mostly in Iran involves the building of underground water channels called qanats to bring water to the fields.
Major food crops in the north are wheat, barley, and rye, with maize, millet, and rice being important in the southern areas. Dates are a major product of the oases. A wide variety of fruits, including oranges, grapes, and olives, are grown in the Mediterranean-climate area. The major cash crops are cotton (Egypt, Turkey, and Syria), tobacco (Turkey), and coffee (Yemen).
Traditional communal land ownership is being replaced by private or state control. Large landowners (often absentee landlords) controlled a large part of the arable land during much of the 20th century. Many governments, with varying degrees of success, have introduced land-reform programs that limit the amount of land an individual can own and that distribute land to peasants. Many peasants still do not own land and have share-cropping or tenant arrangements.
Mining
The leading extractive industry in the Middle East is petroleum. About 57 percent of the world’s proven oil reserves are located in the Middle East. In 1986 petroleum reserves totaled almost 4 billion barrels. The most important oil fields are located in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, and the smaller states around the Persian Gulf and in Libya, with smaller known reserves scattered throughout the region.
Mining of resources other than petroleum tends to be limited by the small amounts and isolated locations. Turkey is the most active, being a major producer of antimony and exploiting significant deposits of coal and iron ore. Israel, Jordan, and Syria are major producers of phosphate, and Turkey also produces significant amounts of mercury and magnesite.
Industry
Traditional craft and small-scale industries have declined in importance in the modern era, although some, such as carpet weaving, continue to be important. Modern industrial activities center on processing agricultural products, petroleum-related industries, and textile production. The oil-rich nations are attempting to diversify their economic bases and become less dependent upon foreign imports by national industrialization programs. Throughout the entire Middle East production for domestic markets and import replacement is a major focus of industry. Significant industrial development has occurred in Turkey, Egypt, Israel, and Iran, and, to a lesser extent, everywhere in the region. Heavy capital goods are largely imported, but major assembly plants now exist for vehicles and machinery in Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Israel. Iron and steel production is significant in Turkey and Egypt, and Turkey is one of the world’s leading producers of cement.
Fishing and Forestry
Because of the depletion of the forests in most of the Middle East, significant production of roundwood and sawtimber takes place only in Turkey and Iran. Important fishing industries are supported by all of the coastal waters. The greatest production from fishing is in Turkey, Egypt, and Yemen, with more limited but locally important production throughout the rest of the Middle East.
Transportation
The region’s central location means that intercontinental transportation has long been important. Overland routes like the Silk Road from China and water travel in the region’s seas have been significant since ancient times. Premodern long- distance overland travel was done by camel and donkey, while sea trade was carried on with distinctive vessels like the dhow of the Indian Ocean basin, the Turkish caique in the Mediterranean, and the square-stern skiff of the Black Sea. They are still in use but are being motorized or replaced by freighters and tankers, just as the camel is being replaced by motor vehicles on the overland routes. The Suez Canal, built between 1859 and 1869 to link the Red and Mediterranean seas, has long been one of the world’s major shipping arteries and has been enlarged to permit the passage of supertankers. In recent years the Middle East has become important in interregional air transport because of its location; several major international airports are located there. Pipelines are widely used to transport petroleum.
Transportation within countries is not as well developed. Great riverboats, such as the feluccas of the Nile, haul freight and are becoming motorized. Other traditional means of transport (including camels, donkeys, and other draft animals) are still widely used, although they are gradually being replaced by motor vehicles. Dirt roads are common, but road systems are being expanded by all states, and few areas remain isolated. The largest system of paved roads is in Turkey, but Israel has the highest percentage of surfaced road. Although the first railroads were built as early as 1851 (in Egypt), rail systems are not well developed. The largest networks are in Turkey, Iran, and Egypt; the highest railroad density is in Israel. National airlines now serve most Middle Eastern cities and towns, especially in the larger countries.
Trade
Trade has long been a major part of the economic scene. Middle Eastern cities of ancient and medieval times were great commercial and trading centers. Twentieth-century trade has been dominated by the petroleum industry. Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, the Gulf states, and Libya are among the largest petroleum exporters in the world. These countries are leaders in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which plays a significant role in setting world oil prices and controlling production. Petroleum and petroleum products traditionally constitute more than 90 percent of the exports of Bahrain, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Agricultural products and raw materials make up most of the rest of the exports, with cotton being an important export of Egypt, Syria, Yemen, and Turkey. Only in Israel is a significant proportion of exports made up of industrial products, including polished diamonds. Manufactured goods and foodstuffs are major Middle Eastern imports.
While there is some significant intraregional trade, efforts to create regional trade communities have not been successful. Most Middle Eastern imports come from the world’s industrialized nations. Customers for petroleum and other exports also tend to be outside of the region. The influx into the region of vast oil revenues has been changing this picture, as oil-rich states become markets for Middle Eastern products and invest in the region. Social dislocations caused by economic modernization have contributed to the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in the area. The Persian Gulf crisis of 1990-91 (see Persian Gulf War) disrupted the regional economy, particularly in Iraq and Kuwait, in nations with large numbers of expatriate workers in Iraq and the Gulf states, and in Jordan, and Iraq’s role in the regional economy remained marginal after the war. The Palestinian self-rule accords signed in 1993, 1994, and 1995 by Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization, the 1994 Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty, and the lifting of the Gulf states’ boycott on foreign companies doing business with Israel raised hopes for developing economic ties between Israel and its Arab neighbors, as did efforts to create a Middle East development bank in 1995.
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